EOTO - Paper

I’ve never really considered paper a type of technology, so researching it was actually pretty interesting. The word paper derives from papyrus, a reedy plant that grows along the Nile River in Egypt. In ancient times, the fibrous layers in papyrus stems were removed and then crossed at right angles with another set of similarly arranged layers. After being dampened and pressed, the drying initiated the gluelike sap of papyrus to act as an adhesive. This process cemented the layers together, forming pieces of “paper.” Back then, papyrus was the most popular writing material, and many records still survive today. 

Papyrus on the Nile

Egyptian Papyrus

 

The invention of paper traces back to China in about 105 AD. By 751, it reached Central Asia and Baghdad by 793. The 14th century marks the paper mill's popularity, where they spread to several parts of Europe. Cai Lun is a Chinese court official, a eunuch, who is given credit for the invention of paper. In the fifth century, Chinese scholar Fan Ye credited Cai Lun for his discovery and creation of paper in his work, “The Book of the Later Han.” 

Cai Lun

Back then, pieces of bamboo or silk strips were utilized to trace writings and inscriptions. However, the heaviness of bamboo and the costliness of silk kept them from ever being used conveniently. Cai Lun began making paper from various natural materials such as tree bark, hemp waste, old rags, and fishnets. These ingredients were all pounded down to be mixed in water before spreading it flat to dry. There were many experiments with different fibers to make paper to find the cheapest mix of materials that produced the highest quality.

Papermaking Process Outlined by Cai Lun

Paper was soon taken beyond being just a technical invention through its successful innovation. The overall quality of paper significantly increased near the end of the Han period (206 BC-220 AD), spreading it quickly through the empire and soon traded to foreign states along the Silk Road. 

The Connectivity of the Silk Road

Once the creation of paper became more known, inventors from varying places worked to find an even faster and more reliable papermaking process. After many centuries, European technology advanced, and thus came the paper machine to optimize papermaking. The first model of it was known as the Fourdrinier Machine, invented in France in 1799 by Louis Robert. Shortly after, advancements to the machine were made in England, where it was then patented by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier (hence the name Fourdrinier Machine). The Fourdrinier Machines were soon placed in the paper mills, which are factories dedicated only for the production of paper and paper-related products. 

The Fourdrinier Machine

There are some negative effects of paper, specifically environmental ones. These include deforestation and the vast amounts of energy used to produce paper. In 2018, the largest component of municipal solid waste (MSW) was paper and cardboard. The total amount of these materials combusted was over 4 million tons, making it 12.2% of all MSW that year. Paper cuts are also considered a negative effect of paper creation in my book.

Global Paper & Cardboard Production Volumes 2008-2018

Paper evidently continues to be a vast part of society as it drastically changed the world way back then. Having decent paper helped make books cheaper and convenient, which enhanced literature and literacy. From there, the value of paper has only grown. It’s involved/used for printing, packaging, writing, decorating, books, toilet paper, currency, and more through industrial and construction processes. Paper has proven itself as extremely versatile and provides many uses to everyone around the world.

Speech Theories - Eight Values of Expression

Out of the Eight Values of Free Expression, the fourth one of Individual Self-Fulfillment resonates with me the most. Individual Self-Fulfillment can also be referred to as Self-Actualization, the realization of one’s potential and the full development of one’s abilities and appreciation for life. This concept connects to Individual Self-Fulfillment as it’s a discovery free speech can guide us to. Free speech enables individuals to express themselves, which helps us create our identity while becoming an aspect of human dignity, human agency, and autonomy. 

Self-Fulfillment resonates with me because it’s a maximizing conception. Its superlatives consist of desire and achievement, which play into human thriving. Seeking to thrive is pretty much an ultimate type of goal. I personally try to come as close to thriving as I can in my everyday life. To thrive means to prosper or flourish, overall seeking for a good human life. To me, a good human life includes trying new things, overcoming challenges, learning through experience, and so much more. Being able to experiment and express ourselves freely allows us all to figure ourselves out, getting us as close as we can to reaching our highest self.

The sixth value of Free Expression, Promote Tolerance, feels the most important to me of the eight listed. It has been argued that we can become more tolerant in other aspects of life through our practice of extending protection to speech that we find either hateful or upsetting. Since this practice teaches us to be more tolerant in varying life aspects, it’s also argued that a more tolerant society is better. Yes, the First Amendment protects hate speech because it helps society learn why it’s hateful and deserves rebuke. Basically, hate speech is how we spread norms about what behavior is acceptable. 

This value strikes me as important because it seems counter-intuitive yet works beneficially. I also often see this value through social media, as it’s internet-based and full of platforms with endless outlets designed for individuality. With numerous users active on it today, it’s crucial that we understand toleration and show respect for a diversity of viewpoints that may come our way. This theory helps explain what’s going on in the real world as it allows us to express, tolerate, respect, and learn from diverse opinions rather than censoring them.

The value that I see in action today and is most personal to me is the eighth one, Protect Dissent. Protect Dissent under the First Amendment protects minority views, regardless of popularity status. We all have a strongly protected right to disagree with the government. According to those like Steve Shiffrin, we should encourage dissent since it’s our patriotic duty to criticize the government. Today, millions of people are active social media users, which translates into millions of different opinions on almost everything. This includes ones on the government, and those seem neverending. With the average person wanting their voice to be heard and their opinion to be valued, social media is full of varying views. Understanding the good of Protect Dissent allows for an assortment of new views, points, and overall ideas.

Supreme Court

 After reading the History Channel overview and watching the videos, I learned a few things about the Supreme Court I didn’t already know. I learned who the first justices were under the first Chief Justice, John Jay, and how William Howard Taft is the only person to serve as both president and Chief Justice. Another piece of information I learned is the history of court seating. The seat number on the court changed from anywhere between five and ten before settling on nine in 1869. One crucial case I found interesting was Mapp vs. Ohio (1961). This case held that evidence obtained legally cannot be used in criminal cases, which I didn’t know beforehand. 

The most important takeaway point about the Supreme Court is how they refer back to The Constitution. The people who wrote The Constitution continue to guide us as a nation today, helping solve our problems that occur over 200 years later. I know that seems like a common-sense piece of information, but it’s fascinating how that foundation is still present in a completely different time. Another close second takeaway for me was learning about certiorari. Every petition, whether high-priced legal counsel files it or whether it’s written by some prisoner sitting in jail, gets the same individual consideration. It’s crazy to think about, given the size of our country and the number of petitions the court receives.

The most surprising thing I learned was how many cases the court receives. They get over a hundred cases a week and about 7,000 a year. Most are certiorari petitions, and very few of them are accepted for consideration. Another surprising thing I learned was how long an opinion could be (up to 80 or more pages) and the intense process it goes through before it’s released. Something else I thought was cool is how every time the justices meet or before they go on the bench, each justice shakes every other justices’ hand. 

The video changed the way I thought of the Supreme Court through the concept of secrecy. Everyone thinks the Supreme Court is some secret because people view it as a legislature. However, a legislature doesn’t produce all the reasons in public. Whereas a judiciary, a court, has no secrets because it’s all out there in the opinions they publish. I used to see the Supreme Court as some big, secretive group, but it’s people simply thinking of solutions. 

Top 5 News Sources

I have never really been big on the news, especially in the past few years. You would think that being an adult in college would imply that I want to know more about what’s going on in the world, since I’m about to be “entering” it after my college graduation. However, that’s not exactly my case. I unfortunately tend to associate “news” or “media” with words such as as negative, overwhelming, distrust, bias, and beyond (as in beyond my influence). Regardless of this, the news is still very informative, consistent, and efficient, as it’s crucial for a society to stay informed. 

Allsides is a news site dedicated to providing multiple perspectives on issues to expose bias. My English College Writing and Public Speaking class introduced it to me during my freshman fall semester. We did many assignments with it, and it was incredibly eye-opening to see the contrast between varying news outlets. Allsides clearly labels each news story as either left-leaning, center, or right-leaning, presenting us with different people speaking on the same issue. It helped me learn how to detect news bias, rather than subconsciously knowing that “news can be biased.” I would recommend Allsides as a place to explore news further. Providing balanced news coverage, media bias ratings, and civil dialogue opportunities can help strengthen society with diverse perspectives and real conversations.

One of the places I could likely receive more direct news from is The Wall Street Journal. It’s a relatively neutral source that’s full of business, economic, and public health information. I remember how during the pandemic, and even now, it was always up-to-date on numerous topics regarding the virus. These aspects included multiple vaccine updates along with economic and social impacts. Its reputation of relevance to the business and financial world is evident and can be beneficial to those interested in these fields. The Wall Street Journal is definitely recommendable to them and others. It provides a more in-depth look at economics on top of their editorial section and solid news coverage.

Fox News is another great place I could likely receive news. I really like the layout of their website, they have a central section that highlights top news stories and easy access to exclusive clips on the left and COVID information on the right. Along the top of their page, they have almost like a bookmark bar that provides easy access to information you’re interested in along the top of their page. These features make for easy navigation and accessibility. They also have a wide variety of reporters, a well-known one being Tucker Carlson (he’s one of the few I know of). I like how he can throw in comedic comments while still successfully delivering information to the public. The Fox News website also has a live link that you can click on whenever you want, so you can go watch your favorite reporters and receive informative news freely. 

    Instagram is a great platform to receive quick and brief news on an alternative route. However, caution does come when utilizing it to gather information. As just an average Instagram user, I can create almost any kind of content I want. Videos, stories, likes, comments, posts, reposts, etc. are all actions anyone can take. Instagram allows you to see news from multiple angles of every story like Allsides, just in a less formal way. It’s incredibly convenient and accessible but also catered to each user. Once we receive news we like and let Instagram know we like it, we’re immediately fed more information from that source or one similar to it. This strategy maintains our interest as users, keeping us on Instagram longer. Props to Insta and other social media platforms for these tactics. Overall, Instagram is an efficient and informative source, but staying attentive to what we consume is essential. 

Listening to a news channel through satellite radio is also a great way to receive information. Satellite radio is beneficial to have in general, as it allows you to receive a clear signal from wherever. Whether in the middle of nowhere or an urban city sprawl, you can still listen to hundreds of channels anywhere. This source is perfect for those who have a long drive to work or drive as part of their job and want to stay informed on public events. I personally prefer music over regular talking on my drives, but I know my parents and many others utilize their satellite radios as a convenient way to receive news.